Newcastle Earthquake Essay Example

Newcastle Earthquake Paper PART I INTRODUCTION AIM The aim of this report is to describe the Newcastle earthquake and identify its social, physical and economic effects on the community. The event in detail, major effects, how the event was caused, the effects on the communities property, people, infrastructure and economy, will all be addressed in this report. Also the long term planning implications, preventative measures, preparedness, response implications, and well as recovery implications will covered and described. OBJECTIVES The objectives of this report on the Newcastle Earthquake are as follows: 1. To define the terms emergency, and show what makes this event an emergency, 2. To identify in detail the nature of the event, in terms of how and why this event occurred, 3. To identify and discus who and what were affected by this event, 4. To identify the long term implications of this emergency, including details of preventative and preparedness implications, as well as response and recovery implications. PART II WHAT WAS THE EVENT? THE EVENT The event was Australia’s most damaging earthquake which hit Newcastle city. WHERE AND WHEN THE EVENT OCCURRED AND IT’S DURATION The earthquake struck Newcastle city at 10. 28am on the 28th December 1989. The epicentre of the earthquake was 15kms west south west of Newcastle’s CBD, and registered at 5. 6 on the Richter scale. The initial earthquake only lasted 5 to 6 seconds, but two after shocks followed. (Geoscience Australia 2004) The first aftershock was around ten minutes later but was not felt by many Novocastrians. We will write a custom essay sample on Newcastle Earthquake specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Newcastle Earthquake specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Newcastle Earthquake specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The second was felt the day after at 7:08am the 29th December, measuring 2. 1 on the Richter scale (Newcastle Library n. d). This after shock was strongly felt, especially in the suburb of Hamilton. The city is located on the east coast of New South Wales Australia, with a population of around 300 000 people (Geoscience Australia 2004). It was settled early in the 19th century, initially for the mining and exportation of coal. Most of Newcastle’s business is based around this coal extraction. The CBD is located between the beach on the east and the busy port on the north. Many of the original buildings are still operating in the CBD (Geoscience Australia 2004). This combination contributed to the damaged caused. MAJOR EFFECTS The earthquake was not a large compared to earthquakes that other countries have experienced, but extensive damage and fatalities were caused. There was a total of 13 deaths caused by the earthquake and another 162 people where hospitalised. Over 50 000 buildings where damaged, both homes and commercial properties (Newcastle Library n. ). In a wider perspective, the shaking effects were felt from Albury, Cooma and Bermagui in the south, Temora and Narromine in the west, to Coonabarabran, Armidale and Coffs Harbour, which are 550 kilometres north of Newcastle. Damage was recorded from Liverpool 138 kilometres south, Scone 145 kilometres west, and Gladstone 320 kilometres north (Australian Government 2003). The further effects that were felt by this ea rthquake will be explained in detail further down in the report. WHY WAS THIS EVENT AN EMERGENCY An emergency from an emergency services perspective A serious disruption to community life which threatens or causes death or injury in that community and/or damage to property which is beyond the day-today capacity of the prescribed statutory authorities and which requires special mobilisation and organisation of resources other than those normally available to those authorities. (csu) Emergency definition from the New South Wales Disaster Plan An emergency due to the actual or imminent occurrence (such as fire, flood, storm, earthquake, explosion, accident, epidemic or warlike action) which: (a)endangers, or threatens to endanger, the safety or health of persons or animals in the Sate; or (b)destroys or damages, or threatens to destroy or damage, any property in the State, being an emergency which requires a significant and co-ordinated response. (New South Wales Government 2001) To determine why the Newcastle earthquake was classified as an emergency, the definition of emergency must be addressed. The two above definitions of the word emergency are different but do come to the same conclusion. It can be identified that the Newcastle earthquake did indeed endanger, or threaten to endanger, the safety of persons in the community. Also, the event did destroy or damage property in the affected area. The event also required the special mobilisation of organisation of authorities. From this it can been seen that the Newcastle earthquake can be classified as an emergency. From here, the event can be classified into specific type of emergency. This event, an earthquake, is classified as a natural disaster. A natural disaster is one that occurs naturally in the environment with out any interference from man. These can include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, cyclones, floods, landslides, some bushfires, and droughts (Carter 1991). Most of these disasters cannot be avoided but some can be predicted or detected, providing significant warning time to prepare affected areas. Natural diasters are part of the earth’s environment, and need to be accepted and expected in our societies. PART III HOW AND WHY DID IT HAPPEN? HOW AN EARTHQUAKE IS CAUSED The earth’s surface is made up of many separate pieces called tectonic plates. These tectonic plates are in constant movement. This movement and pressure of this movement, build up tension which needs to be released. This tension is released in the form of an earthquake. Australia is situated on the Indian-Australian plate; this plate is moving north and colliding with the Eurasian, Philippine and Pacific plates. This movement and pressure is what causes Australia’s earthquakes. Tectonic plates can interact in three different ways. Where plates move apart, they are named Divergent plate boundaries. This movement allows magma to come to the surface, cool and fill the space formed by the movement. The second type of plate movement is where plates are forced directly towards one and other, resulting in one plate being pushed under neath the other. This is called a convergent plate boundary. Transform boundaries, is where two plates slide along each other in opposite directions. Where these boundaries meet, fault lines are formed. It is at these fault lines where earthquakes are most likely to occur. Earthquake’s need a particular science to detect and measure there presence. Equipment called a seismograph is what is used to measure the size of an earthquake. A seismograph records the vibrations that are caused by an earthquake and produces a recording called a seismogram. Earthquake sizes are compared and measured by the Richter scale. This scale is constructed by measuring the maximum height of the seismic waves caused by the earthquake. This measurement is taken at a distance of 100 kilometres away from the epicentre of the earthquake. The epicentre of an earthquake is also pinpointed by the use of three or more seismographs in different locations. This equipment is essential in researching and monitoring earthquake activity. This monitoring may help in the eventual prediction and warnings or earthquakes (Geoscience 2004). THE CAUSE OF THIS PARTICULAR EVENT The Newcastle earthquake was caused in by the movement of the earth’s tectonic plates. The fault line responsible for the Newcastle earthquake is around 40 kilometres long, starting off the coast of Newcastle and travelling under Lake Macquarie. This fault line is an intra plate fault line, that is, a fault line in a tectonic plate, rather then where separate tectonic plates meet. (Lawson 2000) Another unique property of the Newcastle earthquake is the material underlying the surface the Newcastle CBD is built upon. This material, known as alluvium is sediment deposited by flowing water. The alluvium amplified the ground motion of the earthquake, almost like a city sitting on top of jelly (Geoscience Australia 2004). Ground surface velocities were measured, where the city was built on basement rock the surface velocity was 50 millimetres per second. Where the city has this underlying layer of alluvium the ground surface velocities were measured at 200 millimetres per second. This is the reason that so much damaged was caused by this size of earthquake. Generally an earthquake with a magnitude ranging from 5. 5 – 6. 1 only causes ‘slight building damage with plaster cracking, and bricks falling’ (Geoscience Australia 2004). As the Newcastle earthquake was measured at only 5. 6 on the Richter scale, the amount of damage caused was unforseen and unexpected. The damaged caused would usually be associated with an earthquake of a magnitude of 7. 0 to 7. . The difference of the underlying earth, must be taken into account when assessing the risk of damage in other cities, and brought to attention when planning for the effects of an earthquake (Geoscience Australia 2004). THE EFFECTS ON NEWCASTLE’S PEOPLE The effects that the earthquake had on Newcastle’s citizens are very broad. It starts with the most obvious physical effects, but includes the psychological effects, economic effects, and lifestyle effects. Over all 300 000 people were directly affected by this earthquake, and approximately 1 000 persons were made homeless (Newcastle Library n. ) The first and most obvious effect of the Newcastle earthquake would have to be the physical injuries sustained. A total of 13 deaths occurred, 12 were because of structural collapse and the other was from earthquake induced shock. Another 162 people were hospitalized for injuries (Newcastle Library n. d). These figures could have been much higher if the earthquake had happen during school hours or at a time when a major event was planned. The psychological effects of such a major event usually begin immediately (with in 24 – 48 hours) this includes general distress. Numbness and shock occur usually as a defence mechanism, this distress and shock impairs normal functioning. The long term psychological effects are more serious, which sometimes do not present until six months later. These can include a general distress and anxiety, post traumatic stress disorder, depression, phobias, substance abuse, sleep disturbance, hostility, somatization, disruption of family relationships, decreased capacity to work, increased presentation to health care services, increased use of medication, and a general decrease in physical health. The earthquake counselling service set up in Hamilton, a suburb of Newcastle, in February till the end of April diagnosed 46 people with server depression and 37 people with post traumatic stress disorder. Details of these effects are as follows: Depression, the symptoms can include loss of sexual interest, low energy levels, suicidal thoughts, crying easily, feelings of being trapped or caught, loneliness, excessive worrying, loss of interest in life, and a feeling of hopelessness. Anxiety can include feelings of nervousness, trembling, feeling scared for no apparent reason, and feeling tense. Signs of hostility include feeling easily annoyed, temper, having urges to hurt or injure others, and frequent arguments. Somatization symptoms can include headaches, dizziness, pains in the heart or chest, pain in the lower back, nausea, shortness of breath, hot or cold spells, general feeling of weakness, and a heavy feeling in your arms and legs. Phobias can include feeling afraid of open spaces, afraid of being alone, avoiding certain places because of memories. There are four major stressors which produce psychological distress in adults, resulting in the conditions previously outlined. 1. Death encounter – A threat to someone’s life or witnessing gruesome or massive death of others. 2. Loss – Loss of loved ones, home, property, community, familiar environment, or social network. 3. Dislocation – From home, community, familiar environment. 4. Responsibility – perceived or actual responsibility in terms of the disaster, especially when involving the deaths of others. There is a different outcome for children after a disaster, there is no normal reaction varies from child to child. These can include: 1. Fear and anxiety – When the child becomes frightened of things that before the event never bothered them. Examples may include frightened of being alone, going to bed, or things that remind them of the event such as thunder. 2. Regression – The child regresses to a younger stage of development. Examples clinging to parents, thumb sucking, temper tantrums, baby talk, loss of toilet training, and wanting things that have been previously discarded, like bottles or toys. 3. Sadness and withdrawal – The child becomes sad and withdrawn, losing interest in normal activities, loss of appetite, and a general lack of enjoyment of life. 4. Acting out – excessive naughty behaviour for attention. 5. Over reaction to minor stress – Reacting to things that would usually not cause them stress. The general effect on the community was one of a heighten sense of vulnerability, mortality, and sense of community, but with the city damaged there was no focus for the community (Bland 1996) THE EFFECTS ON NEWCASTLE’S PROPERTY There was devastating effects on Newcastle’s structures and buildings, in total around 35 000 homes, 3000 commercial buildings, and 42 schools suffered serious damage. Minor damage was also experienced as far away as Scone, Gladstone and Sydney. These collapsing buildings caused extensive damage in its self, destroying significant property such as cars, roads and infrastructure, and even causing the most of the fatalities. The fatal collapses include the collapse of the Newcastle Workers club, and the Kent Hotel, both very popular businesses in Newcastle. (Australian Government 2003) The most unstable buildings during an earthquake are un-reinforced masonry buildings. Unfortunately these buildings are very common in the older parts of Newcastle. This type of building was constructed up until the 1960s, and includes a wide range of constructions, including houses, terraced houses, shops, schools, churches, and hospitals. The reason of this type of building performing so poorly in an event of an earthquake is due to a lack of construction ties between the double brick walls. This leaves the construction inflexible, brittle, with weak spots and when added with age and corrosion makes them inadequate to withstand horizontal shaking (Geoscience Australia 2004). Another form of construction that is used widely in Newcastle is timber frame buildings. This type of building was popular from the 1960s onwards. This type of construction and perform better then the un-reinforced structures in an earthquake, although this does have weak spots especially were the masonry foundations are used. This can lead to substantial damage to these areas (Geoscience Australia 2004). A more modern form of construction used in the Newcastle area is reinforced and pre-stressed concrete buildings. This type of construction form a significant percentage of large buildings, and used for various purposes such as commercial, car parking, industrial, residential, educational, and government purposes. These buildings will perform well in an earthquake as long as construction has been performed to ensure continuity and irregularities are avoided (Geoscience Australia 2004). The last form of construction that will be addressed is steel framed buildings. This type of construction is again used for large buildings, mostly in areas of industrial and recreational. If construction is not undertaken carefully, connections between steel members can be brittle and cause problems in the event of an earthquake. Geoscience Australian 2004) As can been seen by figure 1. 0 shown below, timber frame structures are the most popular through the Newcastle city, with a large concentration of un-reinforced masonry structures in the older section of the CBD. From this map it can been seen where the most of the damage from different structural type would have occurred. In figure 1. 1 it is shown that the two most unstable structural types, timber frames and un-reinforced masonry, suffered the greatest a mount of loss and structural damaged. These two figures can be used together to show where the greatest amount of loss had occurred. Most of these modern structures did not experience major damage during the earthquake. Except in the case of the Newcastle workers club, where nine of the thirteen fatalities occurred. In this situation there was a combination of two sections built in different styles, an older un-reinforced masonry section, and a newer concrete frame section. The problems arose in the newer section, which was four stories in height with underground parking directly beneath it. The earthquake caused a collapse from the top storey, trapping all people with in the lower stories and in the underground car park (Newcastle Council 2001). Another significant structural collapse was The Kent Hotel, situation on Newcastle Beaumont St. This un-reinforced masonry buildings collapse was responsible for 3 fatalities. This mix of old vulnerable buildings on poor foundations, inadequate maintenance and brittle materials was the combination that led to the extent of damage experienced in the Newcastle earthquake. Geoscience Australia 2004). Figure 1. 0 Placement of structural types in Newcastle according to frame type. (Geoscience Australia 2004) Figure 1. 1: Annualised loss for a selection of building types in the Newcastle region. The annualised loss for a specific building type is described as a percentage of the total value of that building type. (Dhu 2002) THE EFFECTS ON NEWCASTLE’S ESSENTIAL SERVICES Essential services play a very important role in emergency response and the recovery after such an event as an earthquake. With out these essential services the emergency response teams are greatly impaired, especially when the only transport available is by road. The structural effects from the Newcastle earthquake were quite extensive, yet essential services such as gas and water were not affected. Electrical power is very vulnerable to earthquake, the height and structure of power poles that carry the electrical power lines as well as the brittle ceramic insulators found in substations are the weak points of electrical systems during an earthquake. The electrical power infrastructure was damaged during the Newcastle earthquake (Geoscience Australia 2004). Telephone services were also damaged and road transport was seriously impaired from collapsed buildings and debris. This occlusion of roads would have affected the emergency response the greatest, as if directly blocked the emergency services access to the sick, injured, trapped, and other emergencies such as fires (Geoscience Australia 2004). ENVIROMENTAL EFFECTS OF THE NEWCASTLE EARTHQUAKE Earthquakes are considered a natural disaster, and occur in response to the natural movement of the earth’s tectonic plates. Unless earthquake occur in a populated area there is little to none lasting environmental effects. In the case of the Newcastle earthquake structural collapse caused most of the environmental impact in the way of debris. This debris was effectively eliminated through the recovery and rebuilding procedures put in place after the earthquake. So from this disaster there were no long term effects on the surrounding environment (Geoscience Australia 2004). SOCIAL AND COMMUNITY EFFECTS OF THE NEWCASTLE EARTHQUAKE There are many lasting effects on the community of Newcastle city. These include long term effects such as damage to social and cultural structures, loss of life/life style, and economic effects. Short term effects include fear, distress, and confusion. Damage to social and cultural structures can have a large affect on a community and these structures often act as a focal point of the community, structures such as churches, museums, libraries, recreational venues, schools, and conservatoriums. Damage or collapse to this type of structures can have a depressive effect on a community, and cause a community to lose its sense of focus and identity (Geoscience Australia 2004). Short term effects include emotional distress and confusion immediately after the event. This effect also rendered around 1 000 people homeless, leaving them vulnerable and displaced (Newcastle Library n. d). From a different perspective a emergency such as this can bring out a sense of community in a society, with people offering help to those in need. THE EFFECTS ON NEWCASTLE’S INFASTRUCTURE Every community relies on infrastructure to function. Infrastructure includes road networks, rail networks, primary and secondary schools, pre-school centres, TAFE campuses, University campuses, churches, government services, and recreational centres. The predominant section of infrastructure to experience the most damage was Newcastle’s schools. A total of 147 schools in the city were damaged, of this three were deemed unsuitable for occupation and were demolished, another 42 experienced serious structural damage. There is a large concentration of primary schools in the area of Newcastle’s CBD and close suburbs. Many of these schools are old historic sites that are still being used today. This old un-reinforced masonry type of construction, and general erosion left these constructions very exposed to damage from an earthquake (Geoscience Australia 2004). Another prominent structure in Newcastle that suffered significant damage was the Newcastle workers club, this falls under the heading of recreational facility. The damage experienced by this building was outlined under the heading THE EFFECTS ON NEWCASTLE’S PROPERTY. This articular building’s collapse and demolition had a substantial detrimental effect on Newcastle’s infrastructure. Many other important building through Newcastle suffered substantial damage, but all were successfully repaired or stabilised. THE EFFECTS ON NEWCASTLES ECONOMY Costs incurred by an earthquake included direct costs from damage as well as indirect costs, such as loss of business. The estimated value of the damage done by the earthquake was estimated at 1. 124 billion dollars, this measured by the total insurance claims pay out in 1996. The total financial cost has now amounted to an estimate of 4 billion dollars. There were a total of 69,564 insurance claims made for earthquake damage, 63,756 of these were households, and 5,808 were commercial buildings (Insurance Disaster Response Organisation 2002). Until the Sydney hailstorm the Newcastle earthquake was the worst event for the Australian insurance industry (Walker 1999). From the figure 1. 2 shown below, we can seen the areas of Newcastle that suffered the greatest economic loss and damage too their property and structures. Even though this event had a detrimental effect on the unprepared insurance industry, events such as these can often have some positive effect on a society’s economy. Extensive rebuilding, use of supplies, equipment, and skills would have a helpful effect on the economy after such a set back (Geoscience Australia 2004). Figure 1. 2: Annualised loss by suburb. The annualised loss in each suburb has been calculated as a percentage of the total value of all the buildings and their contents within the suburb. (Dhu 2002) PART IV LONG TERM PLANNING IMPLICATIONS PREVENTATIVE / MITIGATORY IMPLICATIONS As this event is an unavoidable natural function of the earth, nothing can be done to avoid this type of event. What can be done in this situation is to reduce the amount of effect an earthquake has on a society. Ways that this can be done is through researching past events, collecting data, reviewing current building codes, protecting emergency facilities, and providing adequate insurance against earthquakes. Research of past earthquakes and the effect they had on the communities they affected, should provide societies at risk with a clear idea of what to expect. From this emergency plans can be implemented. Reviewing past earthquakes can give a clear idea on the direct effects on structures and buildings. Just from this one incident it can been seen that certain types on structures need extra attention and reinforcement when it comes to decreasing the risk of damage that can be caused. This can be directly addressed through the use of building codes and earthquake codes. Since the Newcastle earthquake had little effect on the current building codes, the risk of another earthquake with in Australia needs to be address, and codes and preparation put in to place before that risk occurs (Walker 1999). Another method of reducing the impact in the event of an earthquake is to ensure that all emergency services would be able to cope. Emergency services such as Police, Fire and Ambulance stations, as well as hospitals, and other emergency services such as the State Emergency Service, need to be structurally protected and enforced. All stations and structures should be earthquake proofed by suitably qualified structural engineers, and changes made if need be. The emergency services also need to be well equipped for such an emergency in training, strategic planning, and equipment. Since most of these services main access is by road, suitable planning to avoid this needs to be enforced. Households and commercial operations need to ensure they hold adequate insurance policies against earthquake damage. This will not decrease the damage caused by an earthquake, but will help the recovery and rebuilding of the community after the event (Walker 1999). PREPAREDNESS IMPLICATIONS To be suitably prepared for an earthquake incorporates similar principals as what was outlined in the section above. Additional research and emphasis should also be placed on investigating the earthquake risk in specific areas, and education of the public. The combination of these two ideas, as well as the points outlined in the section above, will prepare the community for the event of an earthquake and facilitate a decrease in fatalities and damage. An earthquake hazard in a specific area can be described as the level of ground shaking that has a certain chance of being exceeded in a given amount of time. For example an earthquake hazard can be described in terms of the level of ground shaking that has a 10% chance of being exceeded in 50 years. With this calculated earthquake hazard, a earthquake risk can then be calculated. An earthquake risk is a combination of the earthquake hazard, the elements at risk and the vulnerability of those elements to earthquakes (Dhu 2002). Shown below in figure 1. 3 it be been seen the areas of the greatest risk in the Newcastle area. Figure 1. 4 shows the greatest risk areas across the country, and figure 1. 5 shows the hazard areas across the country. All these calculated risk and hazard areas need to be addressed with earthquake plans put in place to reduce the damage of an earthquake when the event occurs. Figure 1. 3 Earthquake hazard map with a 10% chance of being exceeded in 50 years. Hazard is defined by the response of idealised low- to medium-rise buildings with a natural period of 0. 3 s. (Dhu 2002) Figure 1. 4 Australian earthquake risk areas (Newcastle Library n. d) Figure 1. 5 Australian earthquake hazard areas (Newcastle Library n. d) Another method of preparing a community for the event of an earthquake is educating the public of the correct procedures on the correct steps to carry out before, during, and after the event of an earthquake. Examples of correct procedures to be carried out in these situations supplied by the Newcastle Council (n. d) are as follows: What can you do before an earthquake occurs? †¢Follow earthquake building codes for new and existing buildings. †¢Check your home for and secure earthquake hazards such as bookcases and other tall furniture. †¢Be aware of the location of electricity, gas and water main switches or valves and how to turn them off with the appropriate tools. †¢Keep the following items ready for use at all times -a first aid kit -a multi-purpose dry chemical extinguisher -a portable radio with extra batteries -a torch †¢Learn first aid and encourage family members to do the same †¢Organise occasional home earthquake drills. This will provide your family with knowledge of how to avoid injury and panic during an earthquake. What can you do during an earthquake? Remain calm, think clearly before moving, provide reassurance to others and then work through the consequences of any action you may take. If you are in a house †¢Take cover under a table or other sturdy furniture †¢Kneel, sit or stay close to the floor †¢Be prepared to move with your cover †¢You could kneel, sit or stay close to the floor, an interior wall or corner. Stay away from large windows, bookcases and unsecured objects. If you are in a shop, office or theatre †¢Do not rush for an exit Move away from windows, glass display cases or other obvious hazards †¢If you must leave the building, choose your exit carefully as possible If you are in a high rise building †¢Take cover under a desk or table; do not rush for exits †¢Stay in the building until shaking sops and until directed to evacuate. If you are outside †¢Avoid high buildings, walls, power lines and other objects that could fall †¢Do not run through streets †¢If possible move to an open ear away from all hazards If you are in a vehicle †¢Stop in safest place available, preferably in an open space †¢Avoid bridges, overpasses and overhead power lines What can you do after an earthquake? Check for serious injury to your families and other around you. Do not attempt to move a seriously injured person unless they are in immediate danger of further injury. If you are inside a building †¢Only use the telephone for emergency use †¢Remain in a safe position until shaking stops †¢Check electricity, gas, water services and turn off if necessary †¢Check food storage and first aid supplies †¢Listen to your radio for information and advice If you are outside †¢Check for fires or fire hazards †¢Avoid fallen power lines †¢Wear shoes to protect your feet †¢Do not attempt to drive. Leave roads clear for emergency vehicles †¢Check building for structural damage RESPONSE IMPLICATIONS The emergency services response to an emergency such as an earthquake largely depends on the plans and procedures put into place before the fact. The services that play a part in the response to such an event are the Fire brigade, Health services, Police services, public information services, rural fire services, state emergencies services, transport services, volunteer rescue associations, and welfare services. These services range from immediate response teams such as the Fire, Police, and Health services, o longer term response teams such as welfare services. Without these essential response organisations, any emergency would end in a great more tragedy (New South Wales Government 2001). RECOVERY IMPLICATIONS Recovery from a disaster can be defined as â€Å"the coordinated process of supporting disaster affected communities in the reconstruction of the physical infrastructur e and restoration of emotional, social, economic and physical well being. † (OMara 2004). After an event such as the Newcastle earthquake all of these points need to be addressed and much effort and coordination put into returning the community back to its former state. There are long term recovery plans such as re building, and restoration of emotional and physical wellness. In response to the Newcastle earthquake an Emergency Reception Centre was set up. This centre treated 14, 800 clients, of these 1,500 were in need of temporary or long term accommodation. Centres like this prove vital in the recovery of a community after such an event. CONCLUSION In conclusion, it is known that the Newcastle earthquake caused extensive damage in physical, emotional, and economic ways. It is also known that some of this damage could have been avoided or diminished with correct planning, preparedness and response actions. An event such as this should be used for education and future planning purposes to protect other communities from similar effects. REFERNCE LIST Australian Government 2003, Newcastle Earthquake, Australian Government, viewed 2 March 2006 ;www. ema. gov. au; Australian Government Geoscience Australia 2004, Earthquake Risk in Newcastle and Lake Macquarie: The Elements at Risk in Newcastle and Lake Macquarie, updated July 2004, Australian Government, also available in pdf format, viewed 11 March 2006 ; http://www. ga. gov. au/urban/projects/archive/newcastle. jsp; Australian Government Geoscience Australia 2004, Newcastle Earthquake, last updated 22 June, Australian Government, viewed 10 March 2006 ;http://www. ga. gov. au/urban/factsheets/earthquakes_newcastle. jsp; Australian Government Geoscience Australia 2004, What is an earthquake? , updated 22 June 2004, Australian Government, viewed 11 March 2006, ; http://www. ga. gov. au/urban/factsheets/earthquakes. jsp; Bland, S, Erin, S, O’Leary, MA, Farinaro, E, Jossa, F, Trevisan, M 1996, ‘Long-term Psychological Effects of Natural Disasters’, Psychosomatic Medicine, vol. 58, no. 1, pp. 8 – 24, available in pdf format, viewed 14 March 2006, ; http://www. psychosomaticmedicine. org/cgi/reprint/58/1/18; Carter, N 1991, Disaster Management: A Disaster Manager’s Handbook, Asian Development Bank, Philippines Dhu, T Jones, T (eds) 2002, Earthquake Risk in Newcastle and Lake Macquarie, electronic version, Minerals and Geohazards Division Geoscience Australia, Canberr a, ; http://www. ga. gov. au/image_cache/GA4187. pdf; Insurance Disaster Response Organisation 2002, Claims Survey, Insurance Disaster Response Organisation, viewed 20 March 2006, ; http://www. idro. com. au/disaster_list/docs/disaster080. df; Lawson, M 2000, Geologists find Newcastle Fault, updated 2000, Queensland University of Technology, viewed 2 March 2006 ;http://www. corpcomm. qut. edu. au/corpcom/servives_function/publications/iqut/iq_206_comp. pdf; New South Wales Government 2001, New South Wales State Disaster Plan, October 2001, New South Wales Government, also available in pdf format, viewed 17 March 2006, ; http://www. emergency. nsw. gov. au/media/84. pdf; Newcastle Council 2001, Newcastle Earthquake, Newcastle regional Library, Newcastle Newcastle Library n. d, Brief facts and figures, Newcastle Council, viewed 10 March 2006 ;http://www. cc. nsw. gov. au/services/culture/library/research/earthq5. cfm; Newcastle Library n. d, Earthquake Risk Maps, Newcastle Council, vi ewed 10 March 2006 O’Mara, T 2004, Recovery Management: The long and only road, electronic version, 17 February 2004, University of New South Wales, 23 March 2006, ;htp://www. tefma. com/infoservices/papers/2004_UNSW_Security_Conference/OMara. pdf; Walker, G 1999, Newcastle Earthquake – What have we learnt, Aon Re Australia Limited, Australia, viewed 20 March 2006, ; http://www. aon. com. au/pdf/reinsurance/Aon_Newcastle_Earthquake. pdf;

Free Essays on Book Bag Report

The Baldilares were lost and had nowhere to go. They didn’t know where they could go or what they could do about it. So they jumped into the trunk of count Olaf (their arch enemy’s) car. It was a long and tiresome drive to their destination (The Cagliari carnival). There were tons of bumpy roads that they soared down. It was very squished in the trunk of Count Olaf ( their arch enemies) car. They finally stopped and it was silent, a door of the car swung opened and then there were some foot steps and some talk about this carnival they were at. Every one was gone so the baldilares peaked through a gun shot hole in the back of the trunk to see where they were. They figured it out because there was huge sign that said, â€Å"The Cagliari Carnival† and there was tons of tents behind the sign. They also saw count Olaf and all his associates going into a Caravan. On the outside of the Caravan there was a huge eye that the baldilares have seen many times before. Like on Olaf’s tattoo on his right ankle which they have used tons of times to prove his identify to the people who were taking care of them. There was also a sign that said FREAKS on the side of a caravan. They knew the only way to get near Olaf without him knowing is to dress up as someone or something else. So they searched around the trunk looking for some disguises of freakish things. Violet and Klaus found a shirt and some pants that they could both fit into to become a two headed person. Sunny (the youngest Baldilares) found a fake beard that she wrapped around herself to become half human and half wolf. Then they got there disguises on and headed out of the car trunk and over to the caravan which Count Olaf and his asociates went into. When they got there they knocked on the door, madam lulu (the fortune teller) said, â€Å"oh do you want to audition to be freaks in our carnival, o well then come right in!† The baldilares went into the caravan and all the evil peop... Free Essays on Book Bag Report Free Essays on Book Bag Report The Baldilares were lost and had nowhere to go. They didn’t know where they could go or what they could do about it. So they jumped into the trunk of count Olaf (their arch enemy’s) car. It was a long and tiresome drive to their destination (The Cagliari carnival). There were tons of bumpy roads that they soared down. It was very squished in the trunk of Count Olaf ( their arch enemies) car. They finally stopped and it was silent, a door of the car swung opened and then there were some foot steps and some talk about this carnival they were at. Every one was gone so the baldilares peaked through a gun shot hole in the back of the trunk to see where they were. They figured it out because there was huge sign that said, â€Å"The Cagliari Carnival† and there was tons of tents behind the sign. They also saw count Olaf and all his associates going into a Caravan. On the outside of the Caravan there was a huge eye that the baldilares have seen many times before. Like on Olaf’s tattoo on his right ankle which they have used tons of times to prove his identify to the people who were taking care of them. There was also a sign that said FREAKS on the side of a caravan. They knew the only way to get near Olaf without him knowing is to dress up as someone or something else. So they searched around the trunk looking for some disguises of freakish things. Violet and Klaus found a shirt and some pants that they could both fit into to become a two headed person. Sunny (the youngest Baldilares) found a fake beard that she wrapped around herself to become half human and half wolf. Then they got there disguises on and headed out of the car trunk and over to the caravan which Count Olaf and his asociates went into. When they got there they knocked on the door, madam lulu (the fortune teller) said, â€Å"oh do you want to audition to be freaks in our carnival, o well then come right in!† The baldilares went into the caravan and all the evil peop...

An Overview of Basque Country

An Overview of Basque Country The Basque people have inhabited the foothills of the Pyrenees Mountains around the Bay of Biscay in northern Spain and southern France for thousands of years. They are the oldest surviving ethnic group in Europe. Even so, scholars have still not determined the exact origins of the Basques. The Basques may be the direct descendants of the first hunter-gatherers that lived in Europe about 35,000 years ago. The Basques have prospered, though their distinctive language and culture were sometimes suppressed, giving rise to a modern violent separatist movement. History of the Basques Much of Basque history is still largely unverified. Due to similarities in place names and personal names, the Basques may be related to a people called the Vascones that lived in Northern Spain. The Basques get their name from this tribe. The Basque people had probably already lived in the Pyrenees for thousands of years when the Romans invaded the Iberian peninsula during the first century BCE. The Romans had little interest in conquering Basque territory due to the mountainous, somewhat non-fertile landscape. Partly due to the terrain of the Pyrenees, the Basques were never defeated by the invading Moors, Visigoths, Normans, or Franks. When Castilian (Spanish) forces finally conquered the Basque territory in the 1500s, the Basques were first given a great amount of autonomy. Spain and France began to pressure the Basques to assimilate, and the Basques lost some of their rights during the Carlist Wars of the 19th century. Basque nationalism became particularly intense during this period. Spanish Civil War Basque culture greatly suffered during the Spanish Civil War in the 1930s. Francisco Franco and his fascist party wanted to rid Spain of all heterogeneity, and the Basque people were specifically targeted. Franco banned the speaking of Basque, and the Basques lost all political autonomy and economic rights. Many Basques were imprisoned or killed. Franco ordered the Basque town, Guernica, to be bombed by the Germans in 1937. Several hundred civilians died. Picasso painted his famous â€Å"Guernica† to demonstrate the horror of war. When Franco died in 1975, the Basques received much of their autonomy again, but this did not satisfy all Basques. ETA Terrorism In 1959, some of the fiercest nationalists founded ETA, or Euskadi Ta Askatasuna, Basque Homeland and Liberty. This separatist, socialist organization has conducted terrorist activities to try to break away from Spain and France and become an independent nation-state. Over 800 people, including police officers, government leaders, and innocent civilians have been killed by assassinations and bombings. Thousands more have been injured, kidnapped, or robbed. But Spain and France have not tolerated this violence, and many Basque terrorists have been imprisoned. ETA leaders have claimed numerous times that they want to declare a cease-fire and solve the sovereignty issue peacefully, but they have broken the cease-fire repeatedly. The majority of Basque people do not condone the violent actions of ETA, and not all Basques want complete sovereignty. Geography of the Basque Country The Pyrenees Mountains are the major geographic feature of the Basque Country. The Basque Autonomous Community in Spain is divided into three provinces- Araba, Bizkaia, and Gipuzkoa. The capital and home of the Basque Parliament is Vitoria-Gasteiz. Other large cities include Bilbao and San Sebastian. In France, many Basques live near Biarritz. The Basque Country is heavily industrialized and energy production is particularly important. Politically, the Basques in Spain have a great deal of autonomy. While they are not independent, the Basques control their own police force, industry, agriculture, taxation, and media. Basque: The Euskara Language The Basque language is not Indo-European: it is a language isolate. Linguists have tried to connect Basque with languages spoken in North Africa and the Caucasus Mountains, but no direct links have been proven. The language Basque is written with the Latin alphabet and the Basques call their language Euskara. It is spoken by about 650,000 people in Spain and about 130,000 people in France. Most Basque speakers are bilingual in either Spanish or French. Basque experienced a resurgence after the death of Franco, and to get a government job in that region, one needs to speak and write Basque; the language is taught in various educational facilities. Basque Culture and Genetics The Basque people are known for their diverse culture and occupations. The Basques built many ships and were excellent seafarers. After explorer Ferdinand Magellan was killed in 1521, a Basque man, Juan Sebastian Elcano, completed the first circumnavigation of the world. St. Ignatius of Loyola, the founder of the Jesuit order of Catholic priests, was Basque. Miguel Indurain has won the Tour de France multiple times. Basques play many sports like soccer, rugby, and jai alai. Most Basques today are Roman Catholic. The Basques cook famous seafood dishes and celebrate many festivals. The Basques may have unique genetics. They have the highest concentrations of people with Type O blood and Rhesus Negative blood, which can cause problems with pregnancy. Basque Diaspora There are approximately 18 million people of Basque descent around the world. Many people in New Brunswick and Newfoundland, Canada, are descended from Basque fishermen and whalers. Many prominent Basque clergymen and government officials were sent to the New World. Today, about 8 million people in Argentina, Chile, and Mexico trace their roots to the Basques, who emigrated to work as sheepherders, farmers, and miners. There are about 60,000 people of Basque ancestry in the United States. Many reside in Boise, Idaho, and in other places in the American West. The University of Nevada at Reno maintains a Basque Studies Department. Basque Mysteries Abound The mysterious Basque people have survived for thousands of years in the isolated Pyrenees Mountains, preserving their ethnic and linguistic integrity. Perhaps one day scholars will determine their origins, but this geographic puzzle remains unsolved. Sources and Further Reading Douglas, William, and Zulaika, Joseba. Basque Culture: Anthropological Perspectives. Reno: University of Nevada, 2007.  Trask, R. L. The History of Basque. London: Routledge, 1997Woodworth, Paddy. The Basque Country: A Cultural History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.

Financial Statement Fraud Schemes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Financial Statement Fraud Schemes - Essay Example This case involves several characters, namely; Mr. Karina Ramirez, the director internal auditor at Apollo Shoes Company, the engagement manager Mr. -Darlene Ward law, Mr. Arnold Anderson the engagement partner and the intern Bradley Crumpler (Timothy, Loretta, & Kenneth, 2011). The communication in this company entails the use of email messages because physical interaction is limited between the employees (Timothy, Loretta, & Kenneth, 2011). Based on this case it can be scrutinized that the company accountants has not been ensuring that all items are properly recorded for easy audit. Additionally, the company does not have enough experts to carry out audit work (Timothy, Loretta, & Kenneth, 2011). This can be scrutinized with a scenario where an intern was incapable of making necessary entries in the books of accounts as other members were busy doing other duties (Timothy, Loretta, & Kenneth, 2011). Poor financial management has subjected customers to financial difficulties and this has made the company fail to accomplish goals and objectives. This can be substantiated by in the director statement when he asserted that the company sales was not strong and therefore there was a need to relook on the marketing plan(Timothy, Loretta, & Kenneth, 2011). 1. Identify potential financial statement fraud schemes would likely be present in Apollo Shoes Company The financial statements fraud schemes has been presented in the Apollo’s Company case in numerous ways. There have been some underlying discrepancies between the figures in the financial statement and director’s reports (Timothy, Loretta, & Kenneth, 2011). For example the audited financial statement indicated that Inventories were valued at $18,825,205.24 while unaudited financial statements indicated that inventories were valued at $$67,424,527.50 (Timothy, Loretta, & Kenneth, 2011). This shows that there was a discrepancy of $48599322.26 obtained by finding the difference between the unaudited and audited financial figure which is a clear indication that fraud was taking place (Timothy, Loretta, & Kenneth, 2011). Additionally, inventories were valued at $18,825,205 in the year 2010 while reserves were valued at $3,000,000 (Timothy, Loretta, & Kenneth, 2011). This shows that there was an approximate of fifteen percent reserves in the company. On the contrary, inventories were valued at $67,424,527 in the year 2011 while company reserves were valued at $867,000 indicating that there were only 1.2% reserves (Timothy, Loretta, & Kenneth, 2011). The above discrepancy was so wide and therefore it is a clear sign that fraudulent acts were taking place in Apollo’s company (Timothy, Loretta, & Kenneth, 2011). In above connection, it can be scrutinized that the company did not established measures to safe guard shareholders interest. For instance; between 2009 and 2010, revenues were reported to increase from 10% to 15 % respectively and that customers were allotted a fair shar e according to the directors’ report (Timothy, Loretta, & Kenneth, 2011). However, this was not the case because the figures could not be reflected in the books of accounts. Additionally, it has been reported that customers were undergoing via financial difficulties (Timothy, Loretta, & Kenneth, 2011). 2. Describe the types of evidence you would look for to

Personal Reflections - Chapter 7 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Personal Reflections - Chapter 7 - Assignment Example This also creates a clear picture on the culture of people and how they inter-relate to each other creating a good social relationship. In my field study I decided to take a keen look at the interactions of the people at the working field depending on their groups. The age group of people also varies from one person to another because people with the same age group are always seen to be together. This depends on the age sets of the people in the field of working. Young people at the age of 18 to 20 years are always together working while communicating at the same tone of information. They always share the same information and chat mostly about current the current world while having high expectations. Others communicate according to the ethnic group. People with the same ethnicity are always together communicating their native language and they normally get along very well. They even have same ethnical characters and they eat a common meal. As I interacted with this group, I realised that most of them love their culture and they like remembering the norms. They also favor themselves according to their ethnical culture. It is easy for them to book for each other their favorite’s meals and they normally understand each other very well. The gender group is another group of the workers who come together to socialize and interact freely. For the men, they always share taught that are muscular and they have a limit to their communication. They are really eager to understand the feminine and they educate each other accordingly. For the female group they communicate a lot while having no limit. They share their secrets and they expose themselves when they are together. As I intera cted with them I noticed that most of them like to communicate while comparing to each other’s life experience. They are also carried away easily and they copy

Fall Of The Magan Civilization

Fall Of The Magan Civilization The transition of humanity from primitive life which emerged hunting and gathering with agriculture, and living in with small group during the Neolithic to establish city states under administrative authorities in the Chalcolithic ,was a tremendous leap  in the renaissance of humanity, which have significant impact on civilizations flourished in the Bronze Age. This transition had a positive impact on the progress of human knowledge in various fields. Menon ( 2010) in his book distinguishes this age by six characteristics (i) copper and bronze from the age takes its name ; (ii) harnessing of animals power ; (iii) wheeled vehicles ;(iv)the sailboat;(v) the potters wheel; and (vi) bricks (p5). These improvements changed the structure of society. Cities became a center of economy, politic, culture and religions. Societies form depended on a hierarchical system. On top hierarchy was king, priests and armies commanders and in middle farmers, artists and craftspeople and in the bottom slaves. Their economy flourished as result of diversity of occupations as well as religion system which played role to demonstrate people .Finally, Knowledge of writing led kings to record economic transactions and social events(Duiker and Spielovgel,p8). 1:1Emergence of civilizations The earliest city states in the world emergence on the banks of rivers in the Nile in Egypt, the Tigris and Euphrates in Iraq, Indus in India and the Yellow river in China. They prospered as result of availability of natural resources, trade activities and an increase of knowledge (Menon , 2010,p6). These led their neighbors to emergence as result of trade and increased demand on materials which were not available in those civilization. 1:2Emergence of Magan civilization Due to development of Mesopotamia and Harappa and Iran states , many other states emergence and grew as result of trade activities such as Magan ( present day in Sultanate of Oman and United Arab Emirates) , Meluhha (India) and Delmon (Bahrain) (. From first half of the third millennium BC, clay tablets from Mesopotamia recoded trade relations between Mesopotamians estates with these civilizations. Land Oman peninsula one of these states witnessed, from the end of fourth millennium B.C birth of the new civilization called Magan in Sumerian cuneiform and Makan in Akadian cuneiform(Weisgerber 2007,p197,198). The Magan was a major partner in intra-regional trade with the other civilizations like Mesopotamia, Syria, Iran , Indus civilization, Yemen and Horn of Africa by exporting copper and diorite Magan civilization which marked in the history of trading with (Cleuziou ,Tosi,2007,p213). Clay tablets which were found in south of Mesopotamia indicated that they obtained copper from Magan in the 3rd millennium BC. Texts from the reign of King Sargon about 2350 BC stated that Magan and Dilmun (Bahrain) and Meluhha (Indus) ships anchored at harbors of his capital Akkad , loaded and purchased goods including copper, silver, oils, beans, textiles and leather products. Copper was the one important goods that was much required by Mesopotamias states to use it in social and religious purpose. Due to limited availability of this metal, they imported it from their neighbors especially from Magan (Weisgerber 2007, p197,198). Extensive investigations in the Oman peninsula have situated many archaeological sites belong to Magan civilization. The sites Archeologists called this phase Hafit which is attributed to the first site that was discovered on the border of Oman and United Arab Emirates by Danish expedition. The archaeological researches presented the first phases of Magan civilization which as follow: The archaeological studies have shown that the era of Magan civilization which extended from the end of 4th millennium BC to the end of second millennium BC, encountered growth and declined in its economy which reflected to communitys remains which they were found whether in settlements or graves. This essay will track the traces of rise and fall of the Magan civilization from two aspects, mining and copper smelting and tombs of the people of this civilization. 2. The development of Copper production Even though , the chemical analysis for composition of copper samples ,found in the Mesopotamia which have proved that their source was Oman peninsula(Berthoud and Clezuiou,1983,p239,v6,p2), there are some views have tried to link name of Magan to east coast of Iran. The main reason for their orientation is that copper were produced in Iranian side (Clezuiou and Mery,2002,p275). However, Cannot be denied that the copper had a role in the renaissance of civilization in the peninsula of Oman. Investigations and archaeological studies in Oman and the United Arab Emirates over last the years, have indicated that the of Oman mountains range contain a large proportion of copper ore which exists in Ophiolites rocks, extending from Musandam in the north to Masirah island in the south. Therefore, more than 150 copper sites have been found, exploited since the Bronze age until the Medieval ( Hauptmann, Weisgerber and Bachmann, p35). Most of these sites locate in Sumail in interior region, Wadi Andam, Wadi Ibra and Lasail in Sohar (Potts 1978, p35). Archaeological studies of a number of mining and smelting sites have shown that mining and smelting copper were similar in all the Calcholithic and Bronze Age sites. Moreover, the techniques of extraction and production was advanced since the end of the Chalcolithic period, that means they were influenced from Neighbors in the Near East (Weisgerber,2006,p:193,194).These technique began with digging and extracting cupriferous mineral Malachite and Azurite sources by using stone or metal hammers. After collecting ore, it was crushed on stone pestles to small pieces to be able to smelt them later. Then, they were smelted in pear shaped furnaces made of clay (Weisgerber, 2007, p: 197,198), with 50 cm diameter and 60-80 cm height and provided by blowpipes, made of leather used for ventilation. At a temperature of more than 1100c fluid copper flowed into hole the ground of furnaces and formed as bun shape ingot or ingot when they become cooled. Thus, the product is ready for exploiting, wh ether for local use or for exporting (Weisgerber, 2007, p197,198). Copper ingots which were prepared for exporting were transferred to number of ports by using donkeys. Umm-an-Nar in Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates was one of the important ports of Magan civilization. Merchants from Mesopotamia obtained their copper ingot with 1 to 2 kg weight. It might also, there was a internal network trade ,connected internal settlements with those in coastal line which it has still followed in present time .Serg Cleuziou ( 1996,p161) states to this kind of trade network fish processed on various ways (salted ,smoked ,dried) already travelled to the interior and that the coastal settlements moved from a subsistence oriented production to a larger scale export oriented production ,thus becoming fully integrated into the exchange system built around the exportation of copper. Through surveys and studies of archaeological in many mining of copper sites, made possible to make timeline for the development for this industry from 3200 1300 BC. 2:1 Copper production Hafit period (Chalcolithic 3200-2500BC) Copper industry in this period began with simple production. A few of mining and smelting sites were found, but often it is difficult to identify them from other sites, belonging to subsequent periods because of continued exploitation of these sites (Weisgerber,v6/2,p270). However, archaeologists were able to follow attacks of this period through the figments of furnaces and waste (slag) of copper production or through artifacts such as needles which found in tomb at Maysar -25 , halberd from Bat site and fish- hocks in Ras-Al-Hamra site RH-5 Ras al-Hadd HD-6 (Cleuziou,1996,p160) . Extensive studies in mining sites, which were carried out by the German mission from Bochum Museum have indicated that, copper production in this period might be poorly developed and it was fluctuating over the period. In addition, they noticed that copper smelting sites were far from mines. This indicates that copper ore could be transferred to settlements by smelters and donkeys. For example, At Batin site in the Ibra state, which was dated to 2660 BC, many heaps of slag, furnaces fragments and hammer stones ( used for crushing ore and slag) are spread on surface of settlement , but mines are not exist in same area(Weisgerber, 2006,p192) . 2:2 Copper productions in the Umm-an-Nar period (Early Bronze Age 2500-2000BC) Outset of half of the 3rd millennium BC marked to an enormous increase in human activity in copper production. This is indicated by the mining sites which are located in the mountains of the peninsula, stretching from Al-Safawir in the united Arab Emiratis to Masirah Island in Oman ( Hauptmann ).It can be seen also through Mesopotamian clay tablets which began to point out to Megans copper. Copper industrial in this age progresed forward by alloying tin factor with copper to produce bronze, which is harder than the copper ( Prang and Hauptman,p75). It also appears that the Magan and Dilmon have played a role in tin and copper trade in the Bronze Age. This was indicated by the analytical studies of copper and bronze assemblages found in Oman and the United Emiratis. This Scientific evidence dissented previous opinion which said that region did not know has this kind of trading( Weeks,2003,p116). Despite this scientific fact, there some archaeologists such as Michael Prange and Andreas Hauptmann believe that0 tin bronze production started late in central of Oman in the second millennium BC, but it was known in one site in the United Arab Emirates(Yule and Weisgerber,2001,p75). Although this view based on archaeological excavations in some mining sites in central of Oman, there are many other mining sites which have been not studied yet and could give a clear image about b eginning of tin bronze production in central Oman. 2:3 Copper productions in the Wadi suq period (Middle Bronze Age 2000-1300BC) In the second millennium BC, something happened that affected on lifestyle of Magans society. Oases might be abandoned and replaced by nomadic style (Cleuziou and Tosi 2007,p257).There was a widespread perception this change has had a negative effect on copper production during this period, but the large number of copper assemblages which were found at the site of Qattara and Awasit and Nizwa grave continued with extensive production throughout second millennium BC(Velde,2001,p109) .In addition an excavations at Bir Kalhar in Almodhbi and Samad al-Shan state have shown that no change apparent in furnace techniques was similar to previous ages (Weisgerber,2006, p196). The expository article by Weisgerber in 1997 ,successfully demonstrates a clear explanation of fall of Magan in secocond millennium BC the importance. He highlights that the internal political crisis in the Indus civilization ,which was one of the important trading partners for the Magan in the tin trade as well as developing copper production technology in Anatolia in Turkey and Alashia in Cyprus which reduced a copper price, were the main reasons for the collapse of the civilization. Thus, Mesopotamia merchants began to import their copper from new countries(p11). In Magan, copper production began to be limited for domestic uses and bronze assemblage was rarely found (Weisgerber ,2007,p287). 3. The development of funerary architecture Funerary architecture was a major concerned by most old civilizations ,because of strong belief of the existence of life after death. Thus, they have been one of the importance monuments in archaeological studies, especially in social, economic and religious aspects which prevailed in these communities. Tombs On land Oman peninsula are the most remarkable monuments . They can be seen in many places Oman Peninsula , on foothills mountains ranges and in bottom of valleys ( Clouziou and Tosi ,2007,p107). They were the first monuments that attracted many archaeological missions to study history of this civilization. Extensive studies have revealed ,there is gradual evolution in funerary architecture from the end of 4rd to3rd millennium BC and abrupt change in this architecture from the second millennium BC . 3:1 Tombs in Hafit period 3200-2700BC They were labeled these tombs as beehive tombs a well known beehive shape in Europe while some others called them cottages. Regarding the architectural design, these tombs were designed in a way that they have two parallel walls surrounding a circle, oval, square or rectangle burial room the floor of which is covered with stony plates. The walls are built using unpolished stones taken from nearby Limestone Mountains without using mortar. The external view of the temples varies according to the type of stones used in construction; some of them are polished and some are not. The internal wall has soft frontages constructed with a particular type of stones organized systematically with fills of small stones that occurs in between. The width of the external wall is lesser and separated from the internal wall with a fill of small stones. In some cases, a third wall is added to these temples. The burial room is roofed with stones that lean towards the surface so that it appeared to be flat . In some temples, a supportive wall was noticed to be constructed inside burial rooms. The entrance of burial rooms takes the form of triangle or square towards south, east or west. After burying dead bodies, these entrances are to be blocked using stones. Mostly, these tombs are mass graves which contain no less than 3 to 30 skeletons of males and females of different ages and some of them are individual. The corpse will be put by its lateral side squatting accompanied by its funereal belongings including daggers, bead necklaces, stony tools and pottery vessels imported from Jimdat Nasr civilization, Mesopotamia. As we know, inhabitants of that period were not aware of pottery industry yet. They just import it or maybe imitate producing this type of clay. These tombs continued to be used for long periods reaching one or two centuries by family groups each one of which used one tomb or more. At later periods of time, the old skeletons were to be pushed aside and the tomb shall be used for new corpses. 3:2.Tombs in the Umm an Nar period 2700-2000BC By the beginning of 2700 B.C, architecture of tombs changed as result of the economic development of Majan civilization. Most of them were built at the plain close to the dwellings of settlements. They become of bigger size and have more rooms to include more corpses; two to four corpses separated by dividing walls. Some temples include two semi-circle rooms divided by central wall one end of which is linked to the wall of the tomb from inside. Some of them include three rooms divided by two central parallel walls constructed in the middle of the tomb separately and their ends are linked to the internal wall of tomb. Some other temples include four rooms divided by central wall constructed in the middle of the tomb and two small walls branch out from it to form the four rooms. In addition, there is one more type which is a wall dividing the tomb into two halves (picture 15). These tombs have one or two entrances located at the eastern or western side. They are 50 cm higher than ground surface, 60- 70 cm tall and 60 cm wide at the lower part. These entrances are locked using three stones of particular shapes: two in the lower part and one in the upper. The floor of burial room was tiled used flat limestone. The internal walls were built using unpolished stones strengthened with mortar. The external walls or frontages of tombs of early Umm- an-Nar period (2700- 2400 B.C) were built using brown and white limestone. These stones were removed from nearby quarries, transferred to the site and then polished taking the shape of small tangle or square cubes (picture 16). They are made curved to be in the same line with the circle wall. These tombs look very nice and the polished limestone look like pieces of sugar. The diameter of temples of this period was 7 -8 m. By the beginning of late period of Umm-an-Nar, the frontage walls of these become greater. Some of them contain two floors the height of which is about 10 12m and sometimes 14m. They were built by using huge limestone plates reaching 1m height and they were decorated with prominent sculptures comprising drawings of humans, animals and snakes. These drawings help understanding the nature of lifestyle of inhabitants of 3000 BC. The roofs of Umm-an-Nar temples were flattened using huge stony plates. A roof gutter at the external ends of the tomb surface is provided to drain rainwater.

Explain the difference between Anxiety and Depression

Two mental disorders that are closely associated with another and share similarities are anxiety and depression. Anxiety is a psychological and a physical state in which a person exhibits excessive fear, nervousness, apprehension, or worry (eMedicineHealth, 2008). Usually people with anxiety cannot stop worrying about things, especially if these are beyond their control. In addition, anxiety also causes people to exaggerate problems and fears, which eventually disrupt their normal way of life because they believe that these problems and fears cannot be solved.In most cases, anxiety is caused by stress or other external factors that cause people to worry a lot (United States National Library of Medicine and National Institutes of Health, 2008). Its most common symptoms may include sweating, palpitations, trembling, nausea, shortness of breath, dizziness, and chest pain, among others (eMedicineHealth, 2008). On the other hand, depression is a condition wherein a person is excessively s ad, hopeless, and/or discouraged (Mayo Clinic, 2008).Like anxiety, it also affects people’s perception and behavior towards several things, especially problems (Mayo Clinic, 2008). One of its most common symptoms include irritability, restlessness, sleeping problems, inability to focus or concentrate, feeling worthless, suicidal thoughts, excess fatigue, and even lose of interest in sex, among many others (Mayo Clinic, 2008). The main difference between anxiety and depression is that the latter is a more severe condition of the latter.A person suffering from depression actually feels sad and excessively discouraged and usually knows what they are depressed about but are unable to control it (Lowrance, 2008). On the other hand, a person with anxiety usually fears something that might happen or something that he or she has not experienced or seen yet (Lowrance, 2008). In other words, anxiety usually involves fear of the future or fear of what might happen due to the present pro blems.